Historical Background of Victimology Essay

I. IntroductionThe nature and limit of dupeization is not adequately understood across the world. Millions of people end-to-end the world suffer wound as a result of wickedness, the guy of antecedent, terrorism and opposite stark misfortunes. Their rights and ineluctably as dupes of this harm fill not been adequately accept. The UN General Assembly adopted the Declaration on rudimentary Principles of justness for victims of annoyance and detestation of Power in 1985. This provides a universal benchmark by which progress tidy sum be assessed in meeting the needs of victims of annoyance and ab ashes of federal agency. Much progress has been make since 1985 primarily by g e rattlingplacenments in Western Europe, North America and elsewhere. They need implemented course of instructions and laws to slip by effect to those basic principles but even in affluent countries much be bewilder remains. Additional resources atomic calculate 18 needed everywhere curiou sly for countries that atomic number 18 developing and in transition.The convention on outside(a) organized curse includes a specific section to protect the rights of victims as does the optional protocol on trafficking. By June, 2005, 99 nations had already ap establishd the codified of Rome that establishes a permanent foreign distressing tap which gives effect to the principles in the Declaration. The rights of the victims of abuse and cry of power be distillery not adequately recognized in any part of the world. Their families, witnesses and opposites, who service them, ar still unjustly subjected to loss, wrongfulness or injury. They too very much suffer hardship when assisting in the prosecution of offenders.The recent UN Congress in Bangkok also drew attention to the victims of terrorism. victims of stark misfortunes much(prenominal) as natural disasters, accidents and diseases shargon similar hurt, loss and suffering. Services to meet the needs of victim s behave much in common mingled with victims of abomination, abuse of power and stark misfortunes. get alongion must(prenominal) be taken to advance query, operate and aw arness for victims across the world. This requires mortals committed to these ideals, better work, much research, innovative gentility and instruction and continued advocacy and rights. It requires a process of assessing progress and playing to make the necessary improvements.II. DISCUSSIONI. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF VICTIMOLOGYA. The Early RootsThe pronounce victim has its roots in some ancient languages that covered a great distance from northwestern Europe to the southern tip of Asia and just had a similar linguistic pattern victima in Latin vh, woh, wg in Old European wh, whi in Old High German v in Old Norse weihs in Gothic and, vinak ti in Sanskrit (Websters 1971).dupeology as an academic term contains two elements One is the Latin term dupea which translates into victim. The opposite is the Greek word logos which heart and soul a musical arrangement of hold outledge, the direction of something abstract, the direction of t individu on the wholeying, science, and a discipline. Although writings virtually the victim appe atomic number 18d in numerous early works by such criminologists as Beccaria (1764), Lombroso (1876), Ferri (1892), Garfalo (1885), Sutherland (1924), Hentig (1948), Nagel (1949), Ellenberger (1955), Wolfgang (1958) and Schafer (1968), the concept of a science to study victims and the word victimology had its origin with the early writings of Beniamin Mendelsohn (1937 1940), these leading to his seminal work where he actually proposed the term victimology in his article A New kickoff of Bio-Psycho-Social Science, Victimology (1956).It was in this article that he suggested the establishment of an planetary ball club of victimology which has uprise to fruition with the creation of the World Society of Victimology, the establishment of a ph i num ber of victimological institutes (including the creation in Japan of the Tokiwa International Victimology Institute) and, the establishment of international ledgers which atomic number 18 now also a part of this institute. Mendelsohn provided us with his victimology vision and conception and, as his disciples we have followed his guidance. We now refer to Mendelsohn as The Father of Victimology.B. scathing Dates in Victimology 1924 Edwin Sutherland includes a chapter on victims in his criminology textbook. 1937 Beniamin Mendelsohn publishes his writings on the raper and his victim. 1941 Hans von Hentig publishes article on victim and twist interactions. 1947 Beniamin Mendelsohn coins the term victimology in a French journal. 1948 Hans von Hentig publishes his book The venomous and His Victim. 1949 Frederic Wertham first utilise the word victimology in a book Show of rage. 1957 Margery Fry proposes victim compensation in the London Times. 1958 Marvin Wolfgang studies homicide victims uses the term victim precipitation. 1963 New Zealand enacts the first Criminal requital Act. 1965 atomic number 20 is the first state in the USA to jut out Victim Compensation. 1966 Japan enacts Criminal Indemnity Law. 1966 USA starts to survey crime victims not stemed to the police 1967 Canada induces a Criminal Compensation Injuries Act as does Cuba and Switzerland. 1968 Stephan Schafer writes the first victimology textbook The Victim and His Criminal. 1972 The first three victim supporter programmes are created in St. Louis, Missouri, San Francisco, California and in Washington, D. C. 1973 the first international symposium on victimology is held in Jerusalem, Israel. 1974 the first police-based victim advocate project started in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, USA. 1975 The first Victim Rights Week is organized by the Philadelphia regularise Attorney, * Associate Professor, Criminology department, California State University, Fresno Director, Tokiwa I nternational Victimology Institute, Tokiwa University Victimology Graduate School, Japan. Pennsylvania, USA. 1976 John Dussich launches the matter Organization of Victim Assistance (NOVA) in Fresno, California, USA. 1976 Emilio Viano launches the first scholarly journal devoted to victimology. 1976 James Rowland creates the first Victim Impact Statement in Fresno, California, USA. 1979 The World Society of Victimology is founded in Munster, Germany. 1980 Mothers Against Drunk Drivers (MADD) is founded by Candi Lightner later superstar of her twin daughters was killed by a drunk driver who was a duplicate offender. 1981 President Ronald Reagan proclaims the first national Victims Rights Week in April. 1982 the first Victim Impact Panel schematic by MADD to educate drunk drivers near how their victims suffered, started in Rutland, Massachusetts, USA. 1984 The Victims of offense Act (VOCA) establishes the national disgust Victims Fund from national crime fines to pay for state victim compensation and services. 1985 The United Nations nem con adopts the Declaration of Basic Principles of umpire for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power. 1987 The US Department of arbiter opens the matter Victims Resource Centre in Rockville, Maryland. 1988 The first Indian Nations justness for Victims of Crime conference is held by the Office for Victims of Crime in Rapid City, South Dakota, USA. 1990 The European Forum for Victim Services was founded by all the national giving medications in Europe operative for victims of crime in consultative status with the Council of Europe and the UN. 1999 The United Nations and the US Office for Victims of Crime publish the Guide for Policymakers on the Implementation of the United Nations Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power and the Handbook on Justice for Victims On the Use and Application of the United Nations Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of C rime and Abuse of Power. 2002 On 11 April, 66 the Rome Statute was ratified & went into force on 1 July at which time the International Criminal Court became effective and it included the creation of a Victim and Witness Unit. 2003 On October 2nd the Tokiwa International Victimology Institute, in Mito Japan undefendable its doors to promote victim rights, to conduct seminars, courses, publish an international journal, and host one-year symposia and lectures and research astir(predicate) victimology. 2004 The World Society of Victimology at its annual executive director Committee meeting in Orlando, Florida adopts a dramatic new strategical plan to commit itself to the ideals and promises of the UN Declaration. 2005 Japan jells the UN Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of Power into their national legislation by adopting a new important law for crime victims. To ensure that the principles would be initiated, the Prime Minister established a cabinet direct committee. The new law includes services for victims, remedy from the offender, information well-nigh iniquitous arbiter and a right to titularly participate in the criminal legal expert process.C. Victim AssistanceSince the mid(prenominal) 1970s victim assistance programmes in America had to cope with the credit that this new field did not have a professional army corps of people with special training in dealing with crime victims. Those who were working in the programmes were a mixture of medical doctors, ministers, psychiatrists, psychologists, social workers, nurses, on-the-job adroit counsellors, mortals outside the dish outing professions and volunteers with all trains of training. thither were no international or national professional standards. There was no security measures or decimal point to prepare someone to do the work of answering victims recover. However, before formal victim assistance programmes evolved, in that respect were some people dext erous to work with victim problems, especially people who had been aiding tike abuse and family ferocity victims. These were social workers. at present, the victim services scene has changed. There are a wide array of professionals and non-professionals working with victims. These would include social workers, psychologists, psychiatrists, nurses, medical doctors, non-specific professionals (who original their formal degrees in other fields but were trained to help victims in the numerous training schools which are both part and fissiparous of academic settings) and, volunteers (who also received their training in the numerous training schools which are both part and independent of academic settings, many of which are 40 hour training modules offered by the victim service agencies where they work).Today the field of victim assistance is the major career field in victimology for persons wanting to help victims of crime directly. The single largest and oldest university offering a bachelor-at-armss degree in victimology and a victim services certificate is the California State University, Fresno. Worldwide, it empennage be estimated that there are about 20,000 victim service programmes now operating reducing suffering and facilitating recovery.II. primeval CONCEPTS IN VICTIMOLOGYA. Concepts1. Victim has it roots in the early religious notions of suffering, kick in and death. This concept of victim was well kn make in the ancient civilizations, especially in Babylonia, Palestine, Greece, and Rome. In singlely of these civilizations the law mandated that the victim should be recognized as a person who deserved to be made completely again by the offender. 2. Crime victim is a person who has been physically, financially or excitedly injured and/or had their lieu taken or damaged by someone committing a crime. 3. Victimogenesis refers to the origin or hit of a exploitation the constellation of variables which cause a victimization to croak. 4. Vict im heedless(prenominal)ness a victimization where the victim causes, in part or totally, their own victimization. 5. Vulnerability is a physical, psychological, social, material or financial condition whereby a person or an object has a weakness which could render them a victim if another person or persons would recognize these weaknesses and take emolument of them. 6. General Victim is a person who has been physically, financially or emotionally injured and/or had their property taken or damaged by someone, an event, an organization or a natural phenomenon.7. Victimization refers to an event where persons, communities and institutions are damaged or injured in a signifi sackt way. Those persons who are impacted by persons or events suffer a violation of rights or significant disruption of their well being. 8. Victimology is an academic scientific discipline which studies info that describes phenomena and causal relationships link up to victimizations. This includes events leadi ng to the victimization, the victims experience, its aftermath and the actions taken by society in response to these victimizations. Therefore, victimology includes the study of the precursors, vulnerabilities, events, impacts, recoveries, and responses by people, organizations and cultures link to victimizations.9. Abuse of Power is the violation of a national or international standard in the use of organized powerful forces such that persons are injured physically, psychologically, emotionally, economically, or in their rights, as a direct and learned result of the mis performance of these forces. 10. Victim Assistance, Support or Services are those activities which are applied in response to victimizations with the intention of relieving suffering and facilitating recovery. This includes offering information, assessments, individual interventions, case advocacy, establishment advocacy, public policy and programme development.11. Victim Recovery is the resumption of the same o r better level of functionality as was enjoyed forward to victimization. Persons who have been victimized vary in their level of mental wellness and wellbeing prior to their victimization. Consequently, victimization affects each person in a different way and causes differing degrees of injury or trauma. In their recovery it is necessary for victims to first try to regain their previous level of mental process plus learn from their misfortune and hopefully exceed their previous level of functionality. To be recovered suggests that a person has at least regained their prior level of well-being and at best, has exceeded it. This state may be measurable by identifying their previous mental condition and determining if they have at least regained that prior status utilise the criteria of trust in others, self-direction of self, individual initiative, competency in daily activities, self-identity, interpersonal intimacy, control over personal situations, successful relationships, s afety in daily activities, acknowledgment of memory, trauma symptoms have operate manageable, self esteem is restored, resourcefulness is achieved, and there is an change ability to ward off potential threats.12. Child Abuse is the well-read application of sexual, physical, emotional or psychological injury to a child to include neglect at the hands of her or his parents or care-provider inside the confines of their family or place of care. 13. Victim Offender Mediation (VOM) is a formal process for face-to-face meetings in the presence of a trained mediator between a victim of a crime and his/her offender who committed that crime. This is also called victim-offender dialogue, victim-offender conferencing, victim-offender reconciliation, or restorative rightness. Often the victim and the offender are joined by their respective families and residential area components or other persons related to the crime event. In these meetings, the offender and the victim talk to each other about the victimization, the effects it had on their lives, and their feelings about it. The aim is to create a mutually agreeable plan to repair any damage or injury that make outred as a result of the crime in the hopes of permanently eliminating the passage of arms that ca utilise the crime in the first place.14. Restorative Justice is a systematic formal wakeless response to crime victimization that emphasizes healing the injuries that resulted from the crime and affected the victims, offenders and communities. This process is a departure from the tralatitious retributive form of dealing with criminals and victims which traditionally have generally perpetuated the conflict which resulted in the original crime. 15. Victim Trauma includes emotional and physical experiences that unveil pain and injuries. Emotional injury is a normal response to an passing abnormal event. It results from the pairing of a painful or frightening emotional experience with a specific memory which emerge and have a long lasting effect on the life of a person. The more than direct the exposure to the traumatic event, the higher(prenominal)(prenominal) the try for emotional harm and prolonged effects. 16. Crisis Intervention is the provision of emergency psychological care to traumatized victims so as to help them return to an adaptive level of functioning and to continue or mitigate the negative impact of psychological and emotional trauma.17. Compensation is a formal administrative procedure provided by law which provides neertheless money to victims for out of pocket real expenses directly resulting from the victimization to be paid by the state after the victim is found to turn according to specific criteria determined by the respective state or federal law. 18. Restitution is a formal judicial procedure used by a judge after guilt is determined as part of a sentence which can provide money and/or services to the victim for damages or suffering which resulted from the victimization to be paid or performed by the offender.19. Victim subject field is a fortnightly info collection and analysis process conducted wonted(prenominal)ly by a government entity within the general population to study information about crime victims regardless whether they reported their victimization to the police or not. It typically uses a face-to-face or telephone interview (or sent questionnaire) and covers demographics, attitudes about crime and details about the victimizations go by dint of over the previous sextet-spot months. 20. Victim Rights are privileges and procedures required by written law which attempt victims specific considerations and treatment by the criminal justice system, the government and the community at large.B. Abuse of Power1. BackgroundIn spite of the legal sanctions which exist passim the world to prevent the abuse of power (AOP), it continues to occur with growing frequency and relative impunity. There are essentially pentad consi derations to abuse of power the type of abuser the specific abuser the manner used the victims and the extent of injury and damage. In each of these five considerations there are numerous physical exertions ranging from the Government of South Africas use of apartheid on Black South Africans causing extensive death and suffering, to the criminal organization known as the MAFIA which uses racketeering, coercion, intimidation, graft and corruption on frank citizens causing extensive death, suffering and property loss.The roughly recent example of AOP is the government of Yugoslavia (now dominated by ethnic Serbs) using extreme forms of aggression, against Croats, Bosnia Muslims, and just about recently ethnic Kosovans with mass killings mass rapes extensive destruction of property buildings, and sacred cultural symbols, for the well-nigh part ignoring the protocols found in the geneva Conventions for the conduct of warfare. This macro criminological/victimological phenomenon has been extensively reported on by the media and by scholars, but predominantly in narrative form. Thus far, very few attempts have been made to isolate the key variables, explain the kinetics of these events and measure their occurrences.2. Theoretical ProblemLike all phenomena, these abuse of power events lend themselves to definitions, theoretic organization and measurement. The magnitude of these occurrences dramatically turn our heads past from the dispassionate evaluation of the facts. The drama of these events is so compelling, even trained theorists put aside their research tools and yield to the subjective descriptions which overwhelm those chronicling these massive abuses. In spite of the strong emotions, the magnitude of the problem calls for thoughtful measurement, analysis and synthesis so that a degree of makeing can emerge. This proposal leave consider using the social behavioural and conflict theories familiar to most criminologist who study macro criminological phenomena.III. MEASURING VICTIMIZATIONA. The Importance and Limitations of descriptive enquiryDescriptive research is primarily concerned with generally characterizing a phenomenon to determine basic information about amount, frequencies and categories of a particular theme. Thus, one of the basic types of data in descriptive research is nominal level data or the counting of apples and oranges. The most important type of victimological descriptive research are victimization surveys. These surveys have thus far become the backbone of victimology information.Not only do these surveys give us the number and types of victims, they also give us trend information so that we can compare victims from one jurisdiction to another, from one type of victim to another, and we can measure the rate of victimization for a given population in a given time period. some other important measurement using survey research is the measurement of behaviours that exist as continua. These types of research g ive us information about the feelings, opinions and responses the victims have. Thus, they are very important in considering the impact of victimization and the progress of recovery.1. The Necessity of Evaluative Researchanother(prenominal) important type of research is the evaluative research used to measure the official government or organizational responses to victimization and the programmes used to help victims cope. These types of research are aimed at measuring the systemic aspects of the victim experience. This is usually focused on the Twin Criteria of Success effectiveness, which evaluates the achievement of programme objectives and, efficiency which evaluates the consumption of resources over the time needed to achieve objectives.Another aspect of evaluative research is answerability, both economic and political. Economic accountability focuses on whether the existence of a particular programme in a given community is justified given the funds available and the ethical c ode currently in existence. Political accountability focuses on whether the existence of a victim programme and its costs are hold backed by those in power. A large part of accountability has to do with community values, consequent expectations and official responsibilities. The measurement of these variables helps to socially contextualize a victim programme or response within the larger society or culture.2. Explaining the Victimization with causative ResearchPerhaps the most challenging and difficult form of victimological research is causal research. This research attempts to explain why and how some variables are effected by other variables in those phenomena dealing with victims. For example, it might try to understand why some victims are severely traumatized by an event, while other victims are not seriously impacted by the same event. The usual method of this form of research is to first create hypotheses about the relationships between cause variables and effect variab les. Then, to measure these variables and see if the data can support the hypotheses.Ultimately, this process can lead to understanding not just one casual link, but many connected causal links, or a causal chain. A victimologist can then develop a theoretical statement with the new facts uncovered using causal research. These theoretical statements help to understand complex social and psychological victim phenomenon. Consequently persons working to prevent victimization could have empirically derived facts so as to chasten the vulnerability of potential victims. Crisis interveners could effectively reduce the suffering of victims immediately after the victimization and prevent the escalation of trauma. Advocates and therapists, basing their response on protocol analysis, could better know what works to facilitate victim recovery and reduce or do away with long-term suffering and promote the return to stable and functional lives for those victimized.IV. THE in store(predicate) O F VICTIMOLOGYA. Promising PracticesAs new programmes and new laws evolve some prove effective and others not. In the search for programmes and laws that fulfil the fundamental aims of the United National Declaration, to be treated with compassion and respect for their dignity, to be provided with access to the mechanisms of justice and to prompt redress to be informed of their rights, to be informed of their design and the scope, timing and progress of the proceedings and of the disposition of their case, to be provided with proper assistance throughout the legal process, to have their privacy protected and insure their safety, to be considered for receipt of restitution, to be informed about receiving compensation.These criteria determine the value of programmes and laws so that they can be evaluated and ultimately recommended as worthy of duplication. In each of the sub-categories of victim programmes, laws, practices and rights, specific examples have become known. Some of these are listed downstairs (from the New Directions from the Field Victims Rights and Services for the 21st Century, U.S. Department of Justice, 1998).1. Law Enforcement In San Diego, California there is a partnership between the police and the YWCA which resulted in a Community Domestic craze Resource Network. This has resulted in a major resource for all the police agencies in the community for close information about the availability of shelters at any given time. In Provo, Utah victims participate in crime solving, called victim-assisted investigations. In Orange County, California a group of five victim advocates working together in a non-profit programme work with police and prosecutors to ensure comprehensive services for victims of gang fury.2. Prosecution In Kenosha, Wisconsin, a programme established by the district attorney established special prosecution units for domestic emphasis and sensitive crimes. In Pinellas County, Florida, the states attorneys parting estab lished a special prosecutor to be responsible for all elder exploitation and neglect cases. This includes police training, community outreach and education for other prosecutors. In Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the Victim Services Unit located in the soil Attorneys Office, employs Vietnamese and Cambodian victim-witness coordinators to assist victims from Southeast Asia throughout their case process, including translating information and helping victims with emergency medical and financial assistance.3. judgeship In Tucson, Arizona, the Municipal Court established a partnership with the police, victim advocates, prosecutors and health care professionals to form a Community Domestic Violence Awareness Centre. In New York State, the Permanent Judicial Commission on Justice for Children was established to provide assistance to children in the courts so as to provide a special space for child care so that those children whose parents are in court have a safe oasis during their stay. In Santa Clara County, California, the courts have established local family violence councils to provide a comprehensive response to domestic violence.4. Corrections In Texas, the Department of Criminal Justice started a victim-offender mediation/dialogue programme for victims of severe violence and their incarcerated offenders. In California one of the best known victim-offender programmes is the Impact of Crime on Victims (IOC) initiated by the California Youth Authority. This programme is aimed at providing 40 hours of education to inform offenders about how crimes affect victims and society. The US Federal bureau of Prisons piloted victim awareness course of actiones on drug and domestic violence crimes for offenders in halfway houses in Baltimore, Maryland, and Tampa, Florida. B. Reality of Promising PracticesAlthough a wide kind of new programmes have been tried and dubbed as promising most of these have not been subjected to any form of empirical evaluation. Before the se programme can be accepted as worthy of duplication, they must be guardedly scrutinized over a sufficient time period.V. Demographic CharacteristicsThe peril of congruous a crime victim varies as a function of demographic variables such as Gender Age Race Socioeconomic classGenderWith the exception of sexual spoil and domestic violence, men have higher riskiness of rape than women (Gelles & Straus, 1988 Hanson et al., 1993 Norris, 1992). Lifetime risk of homicide is three to intravenous feeding generation higher for men than women (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1992).AgeAdolescents have considerably higher range of desecrate than adolescent adults or older Americans (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1992 Hanson et al., 1993 Kilpatrick, Edmunds & Seymour, 1992 Kilpatrick et al., in rack Reiss & Roth, 1993 Whitaker & Bastian, 1991). Data from the National Crime Victimization Survey enter up that 12-to-19 year olds are two to three times as apparent as those over 20 to be come victims of personal crime each year (Whitaker & Bastian, 1991). Data from The National Womens Study indicate that 62% of all forcible rape cases occurred when the victim was under 18 years of age (Kilpatrick et al., 1992).RaceRacial and ethnic minorities have higher rates of assault than other Americans (FBI consistent Crime Report, 1992 Hanson et al., 1993 Kilpatrick et al., 1991 Reiss & Roth, 1993). In 1990, African-Americans were six times more likely than white Americans to be homicide victims (FBI Uniform Crime Report, 1992). Rates of knock-down-and-drag-out assault are approximately twice as high for African- and Hispanic-Americans compared to duster Americans (Reiss & Roth, 1993). Kilpatrick et al. (1991) found that African-Americans (28%) and Hispanic-Americans (30%) were significantly more likely than White Americans (19%) to have ever been violent victims of crime.Socioeconomic ClassViolence disproportionately affects those from dismount socioeconomic classes (U. S . Bureau of the Census, 1991). Family income is related to rates of violence and victimization, with lower income families at a higher risk than those from higher income brackets (Reiss & Roth, 1993). For example, in 1988, the risk of victimization was 2.5 times greater for families with the lowest incomes (under $7,500) compared to those with the highest ($50,000 and over) (Reiss & Roth, 1993).Using longitudinal data from The National Womens Study, Kilpatrick et al., (in press) found that women with household incomes less than $10,000 had odds 1.8 times greater than those with incomes of $10,000 or more of becoming a rape or aggravated assault victim in the two year carry out period. Poverty increase the risk of assault even after dictatorial for the effects of prior victimization and sensation seeking. However, some other studies report that family income is a less important predictor of victimization than gender, age, or ethnicity (Reiss & Roth, 1993). interpret Demographic Ch aracteristic DataSome of the conflicting findings about demographic characteristics as risk factors for violent crime are attributable to methodological variations across studies. Another reason for conflicting findings is that many demographic variables are confounded. That is, they are so interrelated as to cause some worry in separating out their relative contributions. Demographic variables of age, gender, and racial status all lam to be confounded with income young people tend to be poorer than older people women tend to have less income than men and African-Americans tend to have less income than white Americans.Repeat Victimization and the Cycle of ViolenceUntil recently, there was little appreciation of the extent to which many people are victims of crime not just once, but several times during their lifetime. There was sufficient understanding of how resorted victimization increases the risk for and complexity of crime-related psychological trauma. Nor did we understand the extent to which victimization increases the risk of further victimization and/or of violent manner by the victim. Several studies show that a material proportion of crime victims has been victimized more than once and that a account statement of victimization increases the risk of subsequent violent assault (e.g. Kilpatrick et al., in press Koss & Dinero, 1989 Resnick, Kilpatrick, Dansky, Saunders & Best, 1993 Kilpatrick et al., 1992 Reiss & Roth, 1993 Wyatt, Guthrie & Notgrass, 1992 Zawitz, 1983).Other research suggests that the risk of developing PTSD and substance use/abuse problems is higher among repeat victims of violent assault than among those who have experienced only one violent assault (e.g., Kilpatrick et al., in press Breslau et al., in press Kilpatrick, Resnick, Saunders, Best & Epstein, 1994). Still other evidence suggests that youth victimization history increases risk of involvement with delinquent peers and of subsequent delinquent behavior (Ageton, 1983 Dem bo et al., 1992 Straus, 1984 Widom, 1989, 1992). Some research shows that involvement with delinquent or deviant peers increases the risk of victimization (e.g., Ageton, 1983), and that substance use also increases risk of victimization (e.g., Kilpatrick et al., 1994 Cottler, Compton, Mager, Spitznagel, and Janca, 1992).Another line of research has found that a history of child abuse and neglect increases risk of delinquent behavior during childhood and adolescence and of being arrested for violent assault as an adult (e.g., Widom, 1989, 1994). This new knowledge about repeat victimization and the cycle of violence has several implications for appropriate mental health counseling for crime victims Mental health professionals should include crime barroom and substance abuse prevention in their work with victims to decrease the risk that new victimization or substance abuse problems go away occur (e.g., Kilpatrick et al., in press Kilpatrick et al., 1994). Mental health profession als should not assume that the crime they are treating is the only one the victim has experienced. This requires taking a careful crime victimization history. Providing effective mental health counseling to victims may well be an effective way to reduce the risk of early victimization, substance use/abuse, delinquency and violent behavior.Residential LocationWhere an individual lives influences ones risk of becoming a violent crime victim. Reiss and Roth (1993) report that violent crime rates increased as a function of community size. For example, the violent crime rate was 359 per 100,000 residents in cities of less than 10,000 but 2,243 per 100,000 in cities with populations over a million translates to rates septet times greater. (Reiss & Roth, 1993 p. 79).Data including non-reported crimes from the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) also indicate that violent crime rates are highest in of import cities, somewhat lower in suburban areas, and lowest in clownish areas (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1992). The UCR and the NCVS are better at measuring street crime than at measuring violent crimes perpetrated by acquaintances or partners. Thus, the assumption that the increased risk of violent assault associated with residential location most likely results from terra incognita attacks, not necessarily from attacks by family members or other intimates, is a function of the limits of the measurement device.Exposure to Potential AssailantsNo violent assault can occur unless an assailant has access to a potential victim. person could have every previously discussed risk factor for violent assault and be completely safe from assault unless approached by an assailant. A vainglorious theory attempting to predict risk of criminal victimization is the routine activities theory. As described by Laub (1990), the risk of victimization is related to a persons lifestyle, behavior, and routine activities. In turn, lifestyles and routine activities are generall y related to demographic characteristics (e.g., age and marital status) and other personal characteristics. If a persons lifestyle or routine activities places him or her in public contact with potential assailants, then they are more likely to be assaulted than if their routine activities and lifestyle do not bring them into as shop contact with predatory individuals. For example, young men have higher rates of assaultive behavior than any other age-gender group (Reiss & Roth, 1993 Rosenberg & Mercy, 1991).Thus, those whose routine activities or lifestyles involve considerable contact with young men should have higher rates of victimization. Likewise, people who are married, who never leave their houses after dark, and who never take public transportation should have limited contact with young men, and therefore have reduced risk of assault. Although some have argued that routine activities theory has substantial support in the empirical literature (Laub, 1990 Gottfredson, 1981), most of the crime victimization data that are used to evaluate assault risk measure stranger assaults much better than partner or acquaintance assaults. Thus, the theory is probably much more relevant to stranger assaults than to other assaults.VI. Conclusion and RecommendationCrime-related psychological trauma impairs the ability and/or willingness of many crime victims to cooperate with the criminal justice system. Many argued that victims must be treated better by the criminal justice system because it cannot accomplish its mission without the cooperation of victims. At every key stage of the criminal justice system processfrom contemplating making a report to police, to care a parole hearinginteractions can be stressful for victims and ofttimes exacerbates crime-related psychological trauma. Victims whose crime-related fear makes them reluctant to report crimes to police or who are too terrified to testify, effectively make it impossible for the criminal justice system to acco mplish its mission. Thus, it is important to understand Victims crime-related mental health problems. What aspects of the criminal justice system process are stressful to victims. What can be through with(p) to help victims with their crime-related mental health problems. What can be done to help victims cope with criminal justice system-related stress. Effective partnerships among the criminal justice system, victim assistance personnel, and trained mental health professionals can help victims with crime-related psychological trauma and with criminal justice system-related stress.By helping victims through such partnerships, the criminal justice system also helps itself become more effective in curbing and reducing crime. Several factors in the application of different conditioning principles to victims interactions with the criminal justice system helps us understand why the criminal justice system is so stressful for many victims. First, involvement with the criminal justice s ystem requires crime victims to encounter many cognitive and environmental stimuli that remind them of the crime. These range from Having to look at the suspect in the courtroom. Having to think about details of the crime when preparing to testify. Confronting a member of encourage-order knowing stimuli in the form of police, victim/witness advocates, and prosecutors. Second, encountering all these crime-related conditioned stimuli often results in avoidance behavior on the part of the victims. such(prenominal) avoidance behavior is generated by conditioned fear and anxiety, not by apathy. Avoidance can lead victims to cancel or not show up for appointments with criminal justice system officers, or victim advocates. asunder from conditioning, there are several other reasons that interacting with the criminal justice system can be stressful for victims. One reason interactions are stressful is because victims lack information about that system and its procedures, and victims fe ar the unknown. A second reason interactions are stressful is that victims are concerned about whether they will be believed and taken seriously by the criminal justice system. just about victims view the criminal justice system as representative of society as a whole, and whether they are believed and taken seriously by the system indicates to them whether they are believed and taken seriously by society.VI. Bibliography1. (Bachman, 1994 Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1992 FBI Uniform Crime Reports, 1992 Hanson, Freedy, Kilpatrick, and Saunders, 1993 Kilpatrick, Seymour & Boyle, 1991 Breslau, Davis, Andreski, and Peterson, 1991 Kilpatrick , Resnick, Saunders, and Best, in press Norris, 1992 Adler et al., 1994 Reiss & Roth, 1993 Rosenberg & Mercy, 1991).2. Dussich, John and Kiyoko Kishimoto. 2000. Victim Assistance in Japan History, Culture and Programmes. In Paul C. Friday and Gerd Ferdinand Kirchhoff (editors) Victimology at the Transition From the twentieth to the 21st Century E ssays in Honor of Hans Joachim Schneider. M nchengladbach, Germany Shaker Verlag. 3. Schafer, Stephen. 1968. The Victim and His Criminal. New York Random House. 4. www.wikipedia.com5. www.google.com.ph Victimology